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| | | | MAPPING AND CARTOGRAPHY FROM SATELLITE
CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES | | Prof. U. R. Rao
Member, Space Commission
Bangalore-560 094, India. | 1.0 Introduction
Since the beginning of civilisation, amps have been the most effective means of describing events and information. The term map has its genesis in the Latin word "Mappa" which means a piece of table cloth or a napkin, used as parchment roll by Greeks and Romans for preparing their maps during warfare. Sketchy maps and illustrations used to record land ownership and revenue information in the past, later gave rise to cadastral maps. Assessment of crop yield and fixing the governmental share became a major activity of revenue administration, which depending upon the whims and fancies of jagirdars often resulted in a tussle between the peasantry and the revenue-collectors. The credit for systematizing the revenue collection system goes to Todar Mul, who as the Revenue Minister under Akbar, evolved new arrangements for revenue administration, including authoritative patta preparation. Since the early roots of the modern day cadastral maps owe their origin to Todar Mul Bandobast, it is only natural that this prestigious annual memorial lecture of INCA is named after this legendary figure.
With the passage of time and the discovery of printing paper, map making achieved a new dimension - permitting the inclusion of additional information as charts and symbols leading to the birth of a separate discipline - Cartography. Cartographic conventions have evolved over the centuries, reflecting the development of our civilization and culture and responding to the challenging demands for authentic geographic information systems. Over the years, it has undergone major transformations, from maps portraying topographic description of the terrains, to the inclusion of thematic mapping, dealing with the statistically derived information on various relevant dynamic resources. Transition in mapping from the historical artistic portrayal to the complex thematic cartography has been the natural evolution, which is as much due to the availability of better information as due to the development of computerised cartography techniques, which have made it possible to represent data and information in digital formats for processing in the computer using specialised software packages. With the availability of satellite-based remote sensing data on resources over large areas in real time replacing tedious ground based and aerial surveys, and development of the Global Positioning System (GPS) integrated into the inertial platform and cameras, the dream of cartographers to carry out thematic mapping without the use of time consuming ground surveys became a reality.
Historically beginning with the clay tablet inscription of the Babylonian era in 2500 BC, map making on a two dimensional surface was extensively practiced by the ancient civilisations in Egypt, India and China. It was however left to the great astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who with his astronomical observations correctly hypothesized the earth as a near spherical planet circling around the Sun in a circular orbit, to put cartography in its proper perspective. In spite of the great impetus to cartography provided by the military commanders and civil engineers, the non-availability of maps with high precision was a distinct disadvantage. I leave it to the imagination of the learned audience on the consequences to the world of today if Columbus, through mistaken understanding, had not discovered America five hundred years ago. The advent of space era has totally revolutionised the science of cartography by making it possible to repetitively monitor the physical resources of our planet in real time to enable the mapping of dynamic changes.
Cartography has now evolved into a multifaceted discipline encompassing a body of techniques for representing a variety of information and their spatial as well as temporal relationships. Involvement of scientists and technologists belonging to a number of disciplines has vastly enriched the science of cartography. Perceptions of cartography may differ while mathematicians see it as a branch of applied mathematics, image analysts view it as an outcome of image processing techniques. Computer scientist may see cartography as challenge in graphics and software-based representation; photogrammetrists and surveyors may see it as a technique to accurately represent earth's geodesic features and precisely measure geographical features. Planners on the other hand are bound to use cartography as it has developed in the recent past, for displaying and retrieving developmental information.
Parallel technological developments in data capture methods and production technology, have resulted in unprecedented progress altering the concept of cartography resulting in the inclusion of digital mapping, satellite imaging, digital image analysis, geographic information systems and more recently global positioning systems. New map products have appeared in the form image maps, holograms, three dimension stereo on video terminals and digital file stored on compact discs. The main impact of these developments has been to change conventional cartography into a multi-faceted modern discipline responsive to the needs of the dynamically changing world scenario.
The process of map making encompasses two distinct parts - the first is concerned with the preparation of a variety of accurate and precise maps used for basic reference and control such as large-scale topographic maps of the land which are used for a variety of resource applications like hydrographic mapping, soil mapping, geological mapping, aeronautical charts etc., the second refers to preparation of larger variety of maps used for general and educational purposes, mainly the small scale thematic maps used as Atlases, road maps, administrative maps etc.
The evolution of parametric mapping in conjunction with the developments in computer technology and statistical techniques have for the first time enabled cartographers to respond to the challenges of geo information engineering. The introduction of digital technology has in addition to making it possible to represent terrain geomorphological features using digital elevation models, has enabled the representation of a variety of thematic features on a digital base which can then be manipulated by the planners for accurate representation of the dynamic changes in thematic cartography. The ability to tap a variety of databases, to store such information between different agencies and integrate the totality of information, which form crucial elements of the Geographic Information System (GIS), is the most powerful attribute of digital cartography. This in turn, has necessarily led to the definition of minimum standards for data models and exchange formats and even the use of expert system for timely extraction of basic information required by individual users. In this talk, I propose to briefly address the impact of satellite technology on cartography and how the two together have responded to the need for accurate mapping and quick retrieval of thematic information towards initiating developmental processes.
The importance of thematic maps which integrate information on all economic and social factors of importance and their geographical distribution, for initiating region specific developmental activities was first recognised by Finland as early as 1899. Since then, the movement of thematic cartography has spread all over the world, albeit slowly, from 12 countries in 1960 to over 100 countries in 1990s. The availability of a variety of resource information from space based platforms has made thematic maps, our basic tool for carrying out most of the human activities in a systematic scientific manner. These include:
Modernisation, expansion, upgrading and development of transportation means, including roads, railways, ports and airports
Solving problems of rural to urban migration
Security and defence related activities such as definition of national boundaries, exclusive economic zone (EEZ), emergency and relief measures under disaster situation.
Development of power and telecommunication networks
Agricultural management and development of irrigation and water supply
Protection of environment from ecological disasters such as flooding, desertification and erosion.
Landuse, land management
Exploitation of non-renewable resources
Provision of cultural and social services
2.0 The Global Status of Mapping
In spite of the significant efforts made by surveyors/cartographers world over, large scale topographical maps are not available for many areas of the world. The lack of detailed topographical maps of the global landmass is a serious gap in the existing information system. Most developed countries such as North America and European countries are well mapped at various scales ranging from the most accepted scale of 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 to larger scales of 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. On the other hand, the developing countries, with agro-based economies are yet to be fully mapped even at the basic scale of 1:50,000. UN Global statistical data of 1989, clearly brings out, as seen in Table-1, the slow progress in mapping, particularly in large areas in Africa, Latin America and Asia, which are yet to be mapped on a larger scale. Table-1 | Scale | Coverage (%) | Annual Progress (%) | | 1:25,000 | 13 | 0.3 | | 1:50,000 | 42 | 1.2 | | 1:100,000 | 42 | 0.8 | | 1:200,000 | 80 | - | The updating of the maps worldwide are far from satisfactory with only 3% of the maps being regularly updated. The reasons for the serious lacuna in the availability of the detailed topographical maps especially in the developing countries are:
a) Lack of regular and detailed surveys of the entire land mass excepting in a few selected regions in the advanced countries
b) Non-existence of a mechanism for regular updation of these maps due to the large lead time required for planning and carrying out aerial and ground based surveys.
c) Non-standardisation of mapping scales, legends, projection ;formats, etc.
d) Lack of automation for handling large volume of digital data
e) Limited organizational capabilities and lack of financial resources
In spite of the recognition of the importance of mapping at scales of 1:1,00,000 or large for carrying out developmental activities and exploitation of natural resources, complete coverage of the earth even at the coarser scale is expected to take 100 years at the present scale of progress. The only way to avert this situation is to considerably increase the rate of mapping and map revision through increased application of remote sensing technology.
3.0 Satellite Remote Sensing and Thematic Mapping
Satellite based Remote Sensing has become an invaluable source of spatial data on natural resources which can provide timely information on their present status as well as their dynamic changes. Remotely sensed satellite imageries provide the most authentic information to map and monitor land features, natural resources and dynamic aspects of human activities needed for the preparation of thematic resource maps. Stereoscopic RS data are now available which are best suited for generating Digital Elevation Models (DEM) to extract elevation information at desired scales. The availability of a number of remote sensing satellites such as IRS (India), LANDSAT (USA), SPOT (France), MOS-1 (Japan), ERS-1 (ESA) providing continuous data has greatly helped in the development of modern cartography, facilitating timely mapping and change detection in a variety of application areas - agriculture, hydrology, geology, drought and flood monitoring, marine studies, snow studies, land use mapping, urban growth analysis etc. Table-2 provides an overview of mapping activities carried out in different countries using RS data.
Rapid developments during the last three decades have led to the formulation of operational procedures for utilising remote sensing data for various resources management activities. Extensive use of data from the Indian Remote Sensing Satellites - IRS-1A and IRS-1B by the Department of Space (DOS), along with concerned user departments/agencies' has enabled operational use of RS techniques in a number of national-level projects in different resource management areas covering diverse themes such as forestry, wasteland mapping, agricultural crop acreage and yield estimation, monitoring and management of flood and drought disasters, landuse/land cover mapping, wasteland mapping, water resources management, groundwater targeting, marine resources survey, urban planning, mineral targeting and environmental impact assessment. Table-2 provides an overview of the utilisation of RS data in various developing countries of the world. Thus, Satellite data forms the basic input for the preparation of thematic cartographic maps which are essential for planning developmental activities of a region.
3.1 Forestry Preparation of forest maps on 1:25,000 scale for the entire country, using satellite data of 1972-75 and 1985-87 was one of the first projects to be carried out in India, which clearly brought out the reduction in the closed forest cover from 14% to 11% of the geographical area during the period. Awareness of depletion of forest cover brought out by the thematic forest maps enabled the execution of necessary corrective measures resulting in 0.5% increase in the forest cover as observed in 1989-91, in spite of the serious deficit in fuel wood on a country wide basis. Selected forest areas have also been thematically mapped for identifying forest types, biomass assessment and monitoring of forest plantation etc., at scales of 1:50,000. The fact that the annual sedimentation load carried by Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers alone, is almost 2,400 m.t., one third of the total sediment carried by all the rivers in the world, is a striking evidence of the serious soil erosion problem in hilly areas of the country resulting from extensive deforestation. It is only through repetitive and constant monitoring of forest cover that we can hope to arrest this large scale depletion of top soil.
3.2 Wasteland Mapping A nationwide wasteland mapping on 1:50,000 scale has been carried out for the National Wasteland Development Board. Actions have been initiated by concerned developmental sectors of the country to reclaim the culturable waste lands which account for almost 25 m.ha. through afforestation, fodder development and appropriate agricultural practices. In the context of providing food security to the growing population, reclamation of cultivable wastelands for productive use assumes a great significance.
3.3 Landuse Mapping A major project at National level, for generating districtwise landuse/land cover information on 1:250,000 scale using IRS data for spatial planning and management of lands under different agroclimatic zones, has been completed. This study, for the first time brought out accurate information on agricultural landuse including cropping pattern, fallow lands, surface water bodies etc., which are valuable inputs to the decentralised five yearly planning process of the country. Detection of rapid depletion of pasture lands, increase in the fallow lands, vanishing of surface water bodies and general degradation of large tracts of once productive lands have firmly established the need for continuous monitoring of land usage and timely preparation of thematic maps.
3.4 Soil Mapping Satellite remote sensing has been utilized for preparing small scale soil resource maps of the country. Preparations of maps showing details like soil classification and land capability have been taken up for selected areas, to assist in optimal agricultural development in these areas.
3.5 Groundwater targeting Space remote sensing has been very effectively used in India for identifying prospective groundwater zones for optimal exploitation of ground water. Using hydrogeomorphological maps, prepared on 1:250,000 scale using satellite data, groundwater potential zones could be delineated. Over 200,000 borewells have been drilled in about 160,000 problem villages of the country using space remote sensing inputs. A sample analysis of over 17,000 wells drilled initially had established a success rate of 92% as against 45% achieved using conventional mehthods.
3.6 Flood Mapping Satellite remote sensing is being successfully used in the country for obtaining near real-time information about areas affected by floods in all the major flood-prone river basins (Brahmaputra, Ganga, Kosi, Godavari etc.). Repetitive monitoring of the flood inundation pattern over the years has helped delineation of areas prone to perennial flood-risk, for taking long-term flood control measures like providing embankment and identifying vulnerable areas likely to be affected by the meandering rivers causing extreme risk to lives and livestock. Quantitative estimation of the damage to agricultural crops and other infrastructural facilities due to floods are also routinely assessed. Use of ERS-1 data has added a new dimension by enabling the monitoring of flood affected areas under cloud cover.
3.7 Geological Mapping A number of remote sensing based studies have been carried out in the country for geological applications in general and specifically for delineating areas having potential new mineral sites. One of the major projects carried out for identifying areas for mineral search at regional level using 1:100,000 scale maps, was in the South Indian Peninsular shield, covering an area of 400,000 sq.km. under the project Vasundhara. A systematic digital geo-scientific data base has helped in arriving at certain promising target sites for further exploration. Likewise target areas for mineral exploration (base metals, tin, iron-ore, bauxite in about 1,00,000 sq.km., in Orissa State), oil exploration (in North-Eastern and Southern parts of India) and radioactive minerals (in Western, Central, South-Western and Northern India) have also been identified using satellite remote sensing.
3.8 Urban Planning Practically all the major cities in the country with more than 1 million population, have been mapped on 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales to monitor the rapid changes taking place in the urban expansion, a basic input required for respective planning of mega cities. GIS based studies for the Bombay Metropolitan Region and the National Capital Region (Delhi) have demonstrated the utility of the multi-parameter data-base in arriving at useful guidelines for urban planning including siting of drainage facilities with appropriate capacity to meet the future growth requirements. Remote sensing has also been successfully applied to align road/rail in the country, as in the case of ring-road alignment for Bangalore city at a fraction of a cost and time compared to conventional methods.
3.9 Coastal Mapping Entire Indian coastline has been mapped on 1:50,000 scale using satellite data with regard to coastal landforms, landuse and land cover. Prospective sites for aquaculture have been identified besides apprising aspects like suspended sediment dynamics, coastal currents, near-shore bathymetry, areas under mangroves etc., thus providing inputs for better management of the coastal areas. In the context of the limited capability to increase marine fishery potential and the need for improving aquaculture to meet proteing demands of the growing population, coastal mapping becomes very important. Preliminary maps showing the extent of coral reefs have also been prepared using IRS data.
3.10 Fisheries Prospect Mapping Fisheries prospect charts are prepared routinely, using NOAA data, based on mapping of thermal fronts derived from sea-surface temperature and are furnished to all the fishing centres of the maritime States in India. This has resulted in the increased marine fish catch by almost a factor of two to three in practically all the fishing centres in India.
3.11 Drought Assessment and Monitoring District wise fortnightly drought assessment bulletins are issued on a regular basis, for 240 drought-prone districts of the country under the project National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System (N-ADAMS), using NOAA data. These bulletins have been providing valuable assistance to district authorities and agricultural resource planners for advance detection of the extent and severity of agricultural drought conditions, essential for planning appropriate remedial measures on near real-time basis.
4.0 Elevation from RS Data Cartographic mapping, apart from the thematic information, also requires elevation information which is generally represented as contours on topographic maps. SPOT satellites with their capability to provide digital stereo data, have already established the feasibility of obtaining elevation information for deriving Digital Elevation Models (DEM), which can be used for generating contours, slopes and other terrain related derivatives. SPOT data has been used to generate elevation information at 20 m intervals which is the normal requirement for topographical maps on 1:50,000 scale. However, factors such as base-to-height ratios of the original stereoscopic images, image quality, terrain relief, availability of control points, etc. affect the elevation accuracy of DEMs created from SPOT. Orthoimages (image equivalents of orthophotos) have also been generated using geocoded SPOT imagery and DEM models, for extracting planimetric information, generating map products and merging with GIS database.
Technological developments taking place for obtaining high resolution stereo imagery from satellites, are likely to gradually eliminate the dependency on aerial photography, in the future. Spatial resolution, often termed as Pixel Size, is the prime factor which determines the accuracy of mapping from satellite data. Detailed studies carried out on the relationship between pixel size and elevation information, have established the relationship:
PS = _1__ * B * 0.3 CI 0.36 H
Where PS is the Pixel Size, B/H is the Base to Height ratio and CI is the Contour Interval, which is generally a function of the map scale. For example while map of 1:2,50,000 scale is inadequate to integrate information on CI at 100 m level, more accurate representation of CI at 20 m or 10 m intervals would require maps of 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 scales. From the above equation, it is clear that to obtain a contour interval of 10 m on the 1:25,000 scale map, with a B/H ratio of 0.6, pixel size needs to be about 5.0 m. The relationship between pixel-size and contour-interval is shown in Table-3. Table-3 | Scale | CI(in m) | Pixel Size(in m) | Possible error In height (in m) | | 250,000 | 100 | 50 | 15 | | 50,000 | 20 | 10 | 3.33 | | 25,000 | 10 | 5 | 1.5 | | 25,000 | 5 | 2.5 | 0.75 | | 10,000 | 2 | 1.0 | 0.30 |
IRS-1C/D satellites, to be launched next year, having a resolution of about 6 m, will permit generation of contour maps at 10 m intervals on a scale 1:25,000. Realisation of 1 m pixel size envisaged for the future satellites, to be launched in the coming years, will hopefully eliminate the need for aerial photography altogether by providing contour maps at 2 m intervals.
5.0 Advances in RS Technology The high resolution second generation Indian Remote Sensing Satellites IRS-1C and 1D having about 20 m resolution in the multispectral and 6 m in the panchromatic bands with stereo viewing and more frequent revisit capabilities, have been specifically designed keeping in mind thematic cartography and DEM requirements of Indian Cartographers. Along with GPS data, IRS-1C will facilitate the generation of detailed digital cartographic database with digital terrain models to help cartographers in evolving appropriate engineering solutions to complex problems involved in micro-development. Similar developments are also envisaged in the next generation Landsat-7 and SPOT (3 or 4) satellite systems which will help in the generation of thematic maps at 1:25,000 scale are better.
US policy to license to private companies to build and operate remote sensing satellite systems and sell those imageries in the domestic and foreign markets, have encouraged formation of a few private remote sensing satellite system ventures such as Eyeglass International, USA and Worldview International, USA. Likewise smaller satellite platforms providing 1 m resolution panchromatic data, with only cartography in view are also being planned by a few countries such as Russia and Israel. Advances in semi-conductor technology, resulting in the development of 10 to 20 k linear element CCD arrays have made it possible to obtain 1 m stereo imaging from space platforms with a revisit capability of 2-3 days. Before the end of this decade, availability of such value added products for 3D simulations, DTM's and thematic mapping are expected to become available enabling cartographers to benefit from these advances, which can revolutionise the status of cartography on a world wide basis.
Parallel developments in allied fields - Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Digital Elevation Modelling (DEM) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) technologies have resulted in easy integration of various layers of area specific thematic maps. Use of proper network of carefully selected Ground Control Points (GCPs) have greatly assisted in accurate location of various terrain features on the topomaps.
6.0 Evolution of Integrated Cartographic Mapping Rapid developments in the evolution of appropriate GIS packages have facilitated the integration and synthesis of different data sets within the cartographic frame work, making digital maps an important tool in developmental planning and decision making process. In India, satellite based remote sensing inputs have become the key to initiate integrated sustainable development at micro level. The first phase for this approach consists of preparing a set of resource maps using remote sensing data on surface water body, ground water potential, wasteland status, soil maps including erosion status, potential ground water recharge sites, existing land use including agricultural crop inventory, Forestry status and meteorological information. Combining these with the socio-economic factors, integrated land and water resource maps for each watershed are built up identifying high priority areas for development of agriculture, fuel and fodder, soil conservation and afforestation, type and location of recharging strategies depending on the terrain and the availability of underground water potential. Based on the site specific surveys using remotely sensed information and conventional data, each watershed is further sub divided into 400 - 500 microlevel units depending on soil characteristics for identifying suitable conservation and management practices and suggesting alternate cropping strategies for optimal exploitation of soil and water resources. For example, land units in the drought prone area having a very fertile deep soil, which is well drained, but constrained by lack of irrigation facilities, have been recommended for rain-water harvesting and ground water exploration, whereas those lands having moderate soil depth, gentle slope undergoing large scale erosion have been suggested for applying soil conservation measures through contour tillage, strip cropping, etc. Likewise in the hilly areas where the lands are characterized by moderate to steep slopes, severe erosion and unsuitable for agriculture, afforestation along with fuel and fodder plantation has been suggested (Rao, 1993).
With the held of the Planning Commission and active participation of user departments, 157 districts in the country have been taken up under the Integrated Mission on Sustainable Development (IMSD) programme for preparing locale-specific action plans. Actual implementation of the IMSD in a few selected watersheds like the one at Anantapur or Akola, have already provided highly encouraging results. Barren areas where even drinking water was a scarcity in summer, have now become green with two crops being grown and the level of water going up by as much as 3 meters.
While historically establishment of ground control points have been the accepted practice in all photogrammetric surveys, development of aerial triangulation and sophisticated block adjustment methods helped in considerably reducing this highly time consuming requirement. Since the very beginning, it has been the dream of photogrammetrists to free themselves from the constraints of ground surveys and devise a system which would permit mapping from aerial photographs, without the need for costly and time-consuming ground surveys. The availability of Global Positioning System (GPS), integrated onto satellite sensors and inertial platforms, capable of providing the position coordinates with sufficient accuracy has virtually eliminated the need for ground control surveys in photogrammetric mapping. Use of differential GPS systems and appropriate statistical methods of analysis have improved the attainable accuracies of GPS system. GPS based system is the only practical method available when particularly dealing with inaccessible, highly heterogeneous areas, where large topographic maps are not available, and where suitable control features for ground based navigation by triangulation are difficult to find.
7.0 Conclusions Recent technological innovations in satellite sensors, evolution of GIS and GPS services and development of a variety of spatial and temporal query based languages have enabled generation of better quality maps and digital terrain models with flexibility of handling, updating and use in various applied studies. Further efforts are already in progress to generate topomaps in digital form so as to permit updation through inputs from conventional ground surveys, aerial photos and satellite stereo coverage. Even though the potential cost advantages of deriving thematic mapping from satellite imagery is currently to some extent offset by the low resolution of satellite sensors, rapid technological advances taking place now hold a great promise for topographic and thematic map production at a fraction of the cost involved in conventional mapping. A global database of the entire planet of 10(4m2 area, even with data field representation of just 16 bits for square meter, would demand 2 x 105 gigabytes needing 4 million tapes or 50,000 optical discs for its storage. Compilation of such vast data bases, no doubt, require development of faster processors, high density memory devices, efficient data structures and high speed communication links. Fortunately advances in semi-conductor and laser technology has already enabled us to reach femto-second capability. The advent of digital photogrammetry has already established its superiority over conventional analog and analytical photogrammetric data processing instruments, due to its capabilities for online and real time enhancement, contrast alteration, enlargement/reduction, better accuracy and interactive manipulation. With this potential, the digital photogrammetry has become the converging corner where improved satellite sensor technology and ground systems come together to provide accurate representation of spatial resource information. The flexibility of handling, updating and disseminating the necessary information to the scientist, planner and administrator in a timely manner permitting them to undertake developmental activities and monitor the consequential effects has revolutionised cartography on a permanent basis. These developments have also removed the earlier distinction between map makers and map users by promoting customised cartography where maps are produced by the user himself with commercially available simple PC systems.
Developing countries, in particular, with little or no infrastructural facilities can greatly benefit by directly adopting the latest techniques to generate maps using high tech space products and desk top computers. Modern cartography is probably the best example to illustrate how developing countries such as the African nations can take a quantum jump in technology, without going through the step by step process followed elsewhere and thus convert this very disadvantage into a decisive advantage.
If the initiation of sustainable integrated management strategies at microlevel is the only solution to provide food and economic security to the exponentially growing population, it is equally imperative to have timely methods of constant monitoring and assessment of the results of the developmental processes initiated, in order to make appropriate remedial mid course corrections. The world, in the past, has already been the victim of the negative repercussions of the very developmental processes such as the classical green revolution employed for increasing food productivity. Late recognition of the detrimental ecological effects of human activity has, in most cases, made the reversal of environmental changes very expensive and time consuming, if not impossible. The unique characteristics of modern thematic cartography is the intensive collaboration and integration of a variety of disciplines working towards a common goal to provide real time assessment of interplay between a large number of interdisciplinary activities which cannot always be modeled and predicted because of their basic non linear nature. Cartography has thus become as essential tool for the development of the complex society, for the benefit of entire human kind.
TABLE-2 : MAPPING ACTIVITIES USING REMOTE SENSING DATA
| COUNTRIES (Nodal RS Centre/Agency) | Major Mapping Activities using RS Data | Type of Satellite Data used for Mapping | | ASIAN COUNTRIES | | Bangladesh Bangladesh Space Research & Remote Sensing Organisation, (SPARRSO) | Flood Control Crop inventory Coastal mangrove afforestation | NOAA/AVHRR Landsat TM | | China National Centre for Remote Sensing (NCRS) | Soil erosion Forest resources Flood control Crop yield Geology & Non-renewable resources exploration Urban environment Environment Impact assessment | NOAA/AVHRR Landsat TM, SPOT, SLAR, SAR | | India Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) & National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) | Agriculture *Crop Inventory *Shifting cultivation Forest Monitoring Wasteland monitoring Environmental Monitoring *Urban sprawl *Land degradation Drought monitoring Ground water targeting Surface water inventory Snow area mapping Flood affected area mapping Soil categorisation Landuse mapping Geological mapping Coastal monitoring | IRS Landsat TM SPOT, ERS-SAR NOAA/AVHRR | | Indonesia Indonesian National Aeronautics & Space Institute, LAPAN | Forest resources Urban Planning & Development Crop inventory Geology & Mineral exploration Coastal zone & marine resources Global & environmental change | NOAA/AVHRR Landsat MSS | | Countries (Nodal RS Centre/Agency) | Major Mapping Activities Using RS Data | Type of Satellite Data Used for Mapping | | Malaysia Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing | Land use Soil erosion/watershed Coastal changes Geology & mineral exploration Ground water exploration Forest resources Agroclimatic Impact studies | NOAA/AVHRR Landsat MSS SPOT-1 SLAR | | Mongolia | Snow cover studies Environmental & disaster monitoring Water & land management Forest fire alarm Crop yield estimation | Landsat MSS Landsat TM COSMOS (USSR) Meteor (USSR) NOAA, GMS | | Nepal Nepal Remote Sensing Centre | Forest Soil conservation/watershed | Landsat MSS Landsat TM | | Pakistan Space & Upper Atmosphere Commission (SUPARCO) | Agriculture Forestry Water resources Geology/geomorphology Environmental & landuse | Landsat MSS Landsat TM SPOT NOAA AVHRR | | Philippines National Mapping & Resource Information Authority | Forest Landuse/agriculture Coastal zone management Geology Information management | Landsat MSS Landsat TM SPOT NOAA AVHRR | | Sri Lanka Centre for Remote Sensing | Forest Tea acreage & condition Land use | Landsat TM SPOT | | Thailand Thailand Remote Sensing Centre | Forest & environment Coastal zone Watershed Landuse/land cover Disaster assessment | Landsat MSS Landsat TM SPOT MOS-1 | | Vietnam National Centre for Scientific Research, NCSR | Coastal studies Flood Forestry Ground water Landuse/land cover Crop inventory | GMS NOAA AVHRR Landsat | | SOUTH AMERICA (Society for Latin American specialists on Remote Sensing, SELPER) Brazil Institute of Space Research (INDE) | Mineral & Geology Forest Crop inventory Ocean & Environmental studies | Landsat TM SPOT | | Argentina Argentina's National Commission for Space Research (CNIE) | Crop evaluation Geological & mining surveys Flood studies Forest evaluation Water resources & pollution | Landsat, MSS Landsat TM NOAA/AVHRR | | Egypt Remote Sensing Centre, RSC | Drainage Geology, mines, petroleum & minerals, soil, vegetation & land use Ground water potential Town planning & coastal studies | Landsat MSS Landsat TM NOAA/AVHRR SPOT | | Kenya (ARSC) | Crop monitoring Soil surveying Habitat mapping Forest, geological Disease & pest application Coastal studies | Landsat TM Landsat MSS | | Nigeria (ARSC) | Forest & wildlife Vegetation & landuse Geomorphology etc. | Landsat MSS Landsat TM SLAR | | Nigeria (ARSC) Countries (Nodal RS Centre/Agency) | Forest & wildlife Vegetation & landuse Geomorphology etc. | Major Mapping Activities using RS Data Landsat MSS Landsat TM SLAR | | Type of Satellite Data used for Mapping | | Australia Australian Liaison Committee on Remote Sensing by Satellite, ALCORS | Mineral exploration Crop inventory Pasture condition & assessment Vegetation classification Forestry & rangeland monitoring | Landsat TM Landsat MSS SPOT, NOAA/AVHRR ERS, MOS, JERS |
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